ENG501 Glossary

Arbitrariness:Inhumanlanguage,thereisnonaturalconnectionbetweenthewordandthe objecttheymakereferenceto. Thischaracteristicoflanguageiscalledarbitrariness. For example,the Arabicword‘ kalab’meaningdogandtheEnglishword‘dog’havenorelationto thewordtheyreferto.

BowWowtheory: InEnglish=splash,bang,boom,rattle,buzz,hiss,screech,bow-wow Alsocalledthe“bow-wowtheory”oflanguageorigin

Conservative:Itmeansthattendstopreservetheexistingstatus.

Creole: Acreolelanguageisastablelanguagethatoriginatedfromapidginlanguage, buthassincebeen“nativized”(i.e.taughtto,andacquiredby,children).Itsvocabularyis basedonthatofaparentlanguage,althoughusuallywithsignificantpronunciation,meaning andgrammardifferences.

Derivation: Derivationcreatesnewwordswithdifferentmeanings,e.g.maltreatfromtreat. Withdifferentsyntacticproperties,e.g.theadverbquicklyfromtheadjectivequick.

Diachroniclinguistics: Diachroniclinguistics(orhistoricallinguistics),thestudyofa languageoveraperiodoftime.

Dialect: Adialectisavarietyorversionofalanguagespokeninaparticular geographicalarea. Differentdialectsaredistinguishedfromeachotherbytheirvocabulary, grammarandpronunciation(whereasadistinctionmadeonlyintermsofpronunciationis usuallycalledanaccent).Adialectofalanguageisdistinguishable,butstillunderstandable,to speakersofanotherdialectofthatlanguage.

Displacement: Inlinguistics,displacementisthecapabilityoflanguagetocommunicate aboutthingsthatarenotimmediatelypresent(spatiallyortemporally);i.e.,thingsthatare eithernothereorarenotherenow.

Duality: Humanlanguageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously. Wehavea physicallevelatwhichwecanproduceindividualsounds,liken,bandi. Asindividualsounds, noneofthesediscreteformshasanyintrinsicmeaning. Inaparticularcombinationsuchas bin,wehaveanotherlevelproducingameaningthatisdifferentfromthemeaningofthe combinationinnib. Amongothercreatures,eachcommunicativesignalappearstobeasingle fixedformthatcannotbebrokendownintoseparateparts. Yourdogmaybeabletoproduce woof(“I’ mhappytoseeyou”).Itdoesnotseemtodosoonthebasisofadistinctlevelof productioncombiningtheseparateelementsofw+oo+f.Ifthedogwasoperatingwiththe doublelevel(i.e.duality),thenwemightexpecttoheardifferentcombinationswithdifferent meanings,suchasoowf(“I’ mhungry”)andfoow(“I’mreallybored”).

Englishes: WorldEnglishisonelanguageandEnglishesaredifferentvarietyofEnglishlike AustrianEnglish, AmericanEnglishandSouthAsianEnglish(IndianEnglish, PakistanEnglish etc.)

Familytreemodel: Firstattemptatdepictingtherelationshipsbetweenlanguages. Has assumptions:TheRegularityHypothesisTheRelatednessHypothesis

Inflection: Inflectiondealswithpatternsofwordstructurethataredeterminedbytherole ofwordsinsentences. Forexample,apronounlikehehastheformshe,himandhis dependingonwhetheritissubject,objectorpossessiveinagivensentence.

Juncture: Thepausesorconnectionsbetweenwords,phrases,andsentences.

Linguistics: Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.

Longvowels:The"long"vowelsare:• "a"asin"paper",• "e"asin"be",•"u"asin "human".

Morphology:Inlinguistics, Morphologyisthestudyofwords,howtheyareformed,andtheir relationshiptootherwordsinthesamelanguage. Itanalyzesthestructureofwordsandparts ofwords,suchasstems,rootwords,prefixes,andsuffixes.

Neolithicage:“Neolithic”islikewiseaconvenientratherthanscientificterm. Theypossessed asuperiorkindofstoneimplement,andgenerallyahigherculture. Itwasadarkraceofslightly largerstaturethanthePaleolithicpopulation.

Orthography:Anorthographyisasetofconventionsforwritingalanguage. Itincludesnorms ofspelling,hyphenation,capitalization,wordbreaks,emphasis,andpunctuation.

Phonologyofalanguage: Phonologyisthestudyofhowsoundsareorganizedandusedin naturallanguages. Itisthestudyofdifferentsoundsandthewaytheycometogethertoform speechandwords-suchasthecomparisonofthesoundsofthetwo"p"soundsin"pop-up."

Pitch:Pitch–howhighorlowavoiceiswhenproducingasound

Renaissance:Renaissancewasatimeof“revivaloflearning,”recordsofGreekcivilization becameoncemoreavailable. LatinandGreekwerethekeytotheworld’sknowledgeandwere highlyesteemedforpoetry,oratory,andphilosophy.

ReverseLoanwords:ReverseLoanwordsarewordsfromotherlanguagesintoEnglish. Itisa reverseadoptionprocessinwhichwordsfromlanguagesarebroughtintoEnglish. Examples: Stop,sport,tennis,golf,weekend,jeans,bar,airport,hotel,etc.,areamongthemostuniversally usedintheworld.

Shortvowel:Shortvowelare:• "a"asin"cat",• "e"asin"red",

StandardEnglish: StandardEnglishiswhateverformoftheEnglishlanguageisaccepted (atanypointintime,andinanyparticularcountry)asthenationalnorm,encompassing grammar,vocabularyandspelling. ItisavarietyordialectofEnglishwithnolocalor geographicalbase,which,byvirtueofhistoricalaccident,hasbecometheleadingformofthe language. AlthoughthereisnothinginherentlysuperioraboutStandardEnglish,itisthemost widelyunderstoodandthemostwidelydisseminatedvarietyofthelanguage,andisgenerally acceptedashavingthehighestprestige,andisthevarietypredominantlyusedbythepowerful andinfluential. ThereisnosuchthingasaWorldStandardEnglish,althoughBritishEnglish and AmericanEnglisharethetwomostobviouscontenders. Thestandardpronunciationor accentofBritishEnglishbecameknownduringthe20thcenturyasReceivedPronunciation (alsoQueen’sEnglish,BBCEnglishorPublicSchoolEnglish),andstandardAmerican pronunciationisknownasGeneralorMid-WestAmerican,butpronunciationisnotan essentialfeaturesofStandardEnglish,anditmaybespokeninvarietyofaccents.

Stress: Stress–howloworsoftawordisspoken; Synchronicapproach: Thestudyofalanguageatagivenpointintime. Asynchronic approach(from Greeks??-"together"and??????"time")considersalanguageatamomentin timewithouttakingitshistoryintoaccount. Thetimestudiedmaybeeitherthepresentora particularpointinthepast;synchronicanalysescanalsobemadeofdeadlanguages,suchas Latin.

Wavemodel:Theideaisthatinsteadofhavingdefinitedelineationsbetweenlanguages, thereare“waves”oflinguisticchangewhichaffectsomelanguagesbutnotothers,andtendto spreadouttootherlanguagesnearby. Thisisanecessaryprerequisitefordoingseriouswork onthediachronicdevelopmentofalanguage.

WorldEnglish: WorldEnglishisonelanguageandEnglishesaredifferentvarietyof EnglishlikeAustrianEnglish, AmericanEnglishandSouthAsianEnglish(IndianEnglish, PakistanEnglishetc.)

Yo-he-ho”orsocialinteractionsource: Anotherproposal“yo-he-ho”theory,thesoundsof apersoninvolvedinphysicaleffort,especiallywhenthatphysicaleffortinvolvedinteraction= hums,grunts,groans. Theappealofthisproposal=itplacesthedevelopmentofhuman languageinasocialcontext. So,humansounds,howevertheywereproduced,musthavehad someprincipledusewithinsocialinteraction. Apesandotherprimatesalsolivedinsocial groupsandusedgruntsandsocialcalls,buttheydonotseemtohavedevelopedthecapacity forspeech.

Regards

MuhammadIMRANAKHTER