ENG512 Short Notes

Important note. Due to shortage of time I couldn’t overcome grammatical mistakes and mostly there are capitalization errors. So you are to be aware of this error.

What is bilingualism?

Bilingualism refers to the state of a linguistic community in which two languages are in contact with the result that two codes can be used in the same interaction and that a number of individuals are bilingual (societal bilingualism). Titone (1972) says bilingualism is the individual’s capacity to speak asecond language while following the concepts and structures of that language rather than paraphrasing his or her mother tongue.

What is Bilinguality?

Bilinguality is the psychological state of an individual who has access to more than one linguistic code as a means of social communication. The degree of access will vary along with a number of dimensions which are psychological, cognitive, psycholinguistic, social psychological, social, sociological, sociolinguistic, sociocultural and linguistic.

What are the contradictions within definitions of bilingualism?

Definitions of bilingualism range from a native-like competence in two languages to a minimal proficiency in a second language and raise a number of theoretical and methodological difficulties. Titone (1972) says bilingualism is the individual’s capacity to speak asecond language while following the concepts and structures of that language rather than paraphrasing his or her mother tongue. Between these two extremes one encounters a whole array of definitions as, for example, the one proposed by They lack precision to be operationalized, while they also do not specify what is meant by native-like competence,which varies considerably within a monolingual population. These definitions also refer to a single dimension of bilinguality, namely the level of proficiency in both languages, thus ignoring non-linguistic dimensions. Language, in the first places a tool which is developed and used to serve a

What are the functions of language?

There are number of functions but main function of language are social and psychological, both social and psychological, can be classified in two main categories: communicative functions and cognitive functions. Functions of language are universal but the linguistic forms vary across languages and cultures.

Define the levels of language processing. There are at least two levels of language processing: Functional level, where all the meanings and intentions to be expressed are represented; and Formal level, at which all the surface forms used in the language are represented.

Write a note on language Behavior and society relationships. Although the study of language can be conducted at several levels of analysis, the nature of language behavior like that of other complex human behaviors remains the same regardless of the level of analysis across the following: (1) There is a constant interaction between the dynamics of language behavior at the societal level and language behavior at the individual level. (2) There is a constant and complex mapping process between the form of language behavior and the function it is meant to fulfil. (3) Language behavior is the product of culture and as such it follows the rules of acculturated behavior. (4) Self-regulation is a characteristic of all higher-order behaviors and therefore of language behavior. By this we mean that a behavior is not a mere response to stimuli but that it takes into account past experiences; furthermore, it does not follow a pattern of trial and error but is an evaluative response calling upon the individual’s cognitive and emotional functioning adapted to a given situation. (5) Finally, one concept central to this dynamic interaction between the societal level and the individual level is valorization. By valorization we mean the attribution of certain positive values to language as a functional tool, which will facilitate the fulfilment of communicative and cognitive functioning at all societal and individual levels. In addition, when two languages are in contact there can be a state of equilibrium between the two languages in which case the use of both languages is constant and predictable. This equilibrium is not unlike the one existing in ecological systems. Any change of the relation between the two languages, due to a change in form—function mapping or to a change in valorization at any level, will provoke a change in language behavior of individuals.

How language behavior was changed by literacy?

Introducing an individual to the language used in literacy, mainly through the means of learning to read and write, will induce changes in his or her language behavior. For example, processing a written text calls to a greater extent on the use of de contextualized language. When few people were literate, the behavior of individuals was changed with little effect on the social structures. As more and more people become literate, linguistic forms are mapped on to new cognitive functions; when a critical mass is reached, a need for new social institutions such as schools (form) are created. In turn, the se institutions serve the function of literacy; as the need to fulfill this function continues to grow, new norms, which evolve into a recognized fundamental right for education (form), are created. This, in turn, shapes individual behavior: when schooling becomes compulsory, all individuals in a given society are expected to master reading and writing, thus shaping their own individual behavior.

Describe relation between linguistic form and function. The two-level mapping between function and linguistic form is based on the assumption that linguistic forms are developed to express meanings and communicative intentions. As language develops, form—function mapping is not necessarily a one-to-one correlation: a single form can be mapped on to different functions ,e.g. it’s cold in here might have are ferential function, meaning the temperature is low ,or an instrumental-regulatory function meaning turn on the radiator. Conversely a single function may be served by several linguistic forms: an order can be expressed by an imperative, an interrogative, etc.

How a Language Change?

Language is never static but changes over time. P idginisation is an example in this regard which is developed for the purpose of minimal communication between individuals/ groups, speaking mutually unintelligible vernaculars. In the pidginisation process, limited and simplified linguistic forms are developed. As the need for communication or function increases in the society, new forms are created by the speakers. Gradually these new forms serve extended functions until pidgin evolves into a creole (form) as it becomes the mother tongue of the next generation, and thereby serves new functions.

What are the reasons for language change?

The forms of language undergo constant changes due to social changes, political changes, migrations, religious impacts, role of governance, emergence of new technologies and contact with other languages. New forms apply to old functions, as when a new expression is used by teenagers; in the same way old forms apply to new functions, as for example; the English words ave in sing a computer; or new forms can be developed for new functions (e.g. new terminology).

What is language Valorization?

Language valorization is a process in which one language is preferred in multilingual context than any other language of that society. Certain functions of language are valorized more than others, e.g. the cognitive function in school. If different varieties of language, e.g. accents, are present in the society, one variety may be valued to the detriment of others. A similar situation happens in the case of multilingual societies. One or more languages will be highly valued, while others will be devalorized.

How we analyze language behavior?

To sum up language behavior, we will focus on different societal and individual levels: societal (institutions, groups and social classes), social networks and interpersonal relations, individual (developmental, socio-affective, cognitive and neuropsychological processes as well as language behavior). At each of these levels, language behavior is dynamic: there are constant interactions amongst the determining factors within and between the different levels.

What are the development aspects of Language Behavior According to Pinker(1996)?

Modeling of language behavior has been developed more at individual level than at societal