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BUSINESS ETHICS · MGT-610 · Table of Content

Lesson No. Title / Topic Page No. Introduction Introduction (Contd.) Theory of Ethical Relativism Moral Development and Moral Reasoning Moral Reasoning Moral Responsibility and Blame Utilitarianism Utilitarianism (Contd.) Universalizability and Reversibility Egalitarians’ View John Rawls’ Theory of Justice The Ethics of Care The Ethics of Care (Contd.) Morality in International Contexts Free Market and Planned Economy Law of Nature Free Markets and Utility: Adam Smith Ricardo and Globalization Free Market Economy Competition and The Market Perfect Competition Monopoly Competition

World Watch Figures Ethics and The Environment Ethics and The Environment (Contd.) Ethics and The Environment (Contd.) The Ethics of Pollution Control Costs and Benefits Ethics of Care Ethics of Care-Utility and Conservation The Ethics of Consumer Production and Marketing Consumer and Information The Contract View of Business’ Duties to Consumer The Due Care Theory The Social Costs View of The Manufacturer’s Duties Advertising Ethics Advertising Ethics (Contd.) Advertising Ethics (Contd.) Advertising Ethics (Contd.) Galbraith Vs. Von Hayek (Contd.) Advertising and Self-Regulation Consumer Privacy The Ethics of Job Discrimination

LESSON 23

Oligopolies can set high prices through explicit agreements to restrain competition. The more highly concentrated the oligopoly, the easier it is to collude against the interests of society, economic freedom, and justice. The following list identifies practices that are clearly unethical:

1. Price Fixing - when companies agree to set prices artificially high.
2. Manipulation of Supply - when a company agrees to limit production.
3. Exclusive Dealing Arrangements - when a company sells to a retailer only on condition that the retailer will not purchase products from other companies and/or will not sell outside a certain geographical area.
4. Tying Arrangements - when a company sells a buyer certain goods only on condition that the buyer also purchases other goods from the firm.
5. Retail Price Maintenance Agreements - when a company sells to a retailer only on condition that they agree to charge the same set retail prices.
6. Price Discrimination - when a company charges different prices to different buyers for the same goods or services.

Several industrial and organizational factors lead companies to engage in these practices:

1. Crowded and Mature Market - When large numbers of new entrants or declining demand create overcapacity in a market, the resulting decline in revenues and profits creates pressures on middle-level managers. They may respond by allowing, encouraging, and even ordering their sales teams to engage in price fixing.
2. Job-Order Nature of Business - If orders are priced individually so that pricing decisions are made frequently and at low levels of the organization, collusion among low-level salespeople is more likely.
3. Undifferentiated Products - When the product offered by each company in an industry is so similar to those of other companies that they must compete on price alone by continually reducing prices, salespeople come to feel that the only way to keep prices from collapsing is by getting together and fixing prices.
4. Culture of the Business - When an organization's salespeople feel that price fixing is a common practice and is desired, condoned, accepted, rationalized, and even encouraged by the organization, price fixing is more likely.
5. Personnel Practices - When managers are evaluated and rewarded solely or primarily on the basis of profits and volume so that bonuses, commissions, advancement, and other rewards are dependent on these objectives, they will come to believe that the company wants them to achieve these objectives regardless of the means.
6. Pricing Decisions - When organizations are decentralized so that pricing decisions are pushed down into the hands of a lower part of the organization, price fixing is more likely to happen. Price decisions should be made at higher organizational levels.
7. Trade Associations - Allowing salespeople to meet with competitors in trade association meetings will encourage them to talk about pricing and to begin to engage in price-setting arrangements with their counterparts in competing firms.
8. Corporate Legal Staff - When legal departments fail to provide guidance to sales staff until after a problem has occurred, price-fixing problems are more likely.