STA630 Final Term Current Solved Papers

STA630 Research Methods · CURRENT SOLVED QUESTIONS · FINAL TERM 2021

Q1. Difference between letter of transmittal and authorization (3 marks)

This element is included in relatively formal and very formal reports. Its purpose is to release or deliver the report to the recipient. It also serves to establish some rapport between the reader and the writer. This is one part of the formal report where a personal, or even a slightly informal, tone should be used. The transmittal letter should not dive into report findings except in the broadest terms. This letter may be like:

This is a letter to the researcher approving the project, detailing who has responsibility for the project and indicating what resources are available to support it. The letter not only shows who sponsored the research but also delineates the original request.

Researcher would not write this letter. In many situations, referring to the letter of authorization in the letter of transmittal is sufficient. If so, the letter of authorization need not be included in the report. In case the letter has to be included, exact copy of the original may be reproduced.

Qno. 1 Difference between population and target population.

Population

A population is the theoretically specified aggregation of study elements. It is translating the abstract concept into workable concept. For example, let us look at the study of “college students.” Theoretically who are the college students? They might include students registered in government colleges and/or private colleges, students of intermediate classes and/or graduate classes, students of professional colleges and/or nonprofessional colleges, and many other variations. In this way the pool of all available elements is population.

Target Population

Out of the conceptual variations what exactly the researcher wants to focus on. This may also be called a target population. Target population is the complete group of specific population elements relevant to the research project. Target population may also be called survey population i.e. that aggregation of elements from which the survey sample is actually selected.

At the outset of the sampling process, it is vitally important to carefully define the target population so that the proper source from which the data is to be collected can be identified. In our example of „college students” finally we may decide to study the college students from government institutions located in Lahore, who are studying social sciences, who are aged 19 years of age, and hailing from rural areas.

Three important Parts of experiment

Parts of Experiments:

We can divide the experiments into seven parts and for each part there is a term. Not all experiments have all these parts, and some have all seven parts plus others. The following seven usually make up a true experiment.

1. Treatment or independent variable.
2. Dependent variable.
3. Pretest.
4. Posttest.
5. Experimental group.
6. Control group.
7. Assignment of subjects.

Qno. 1 why pilot testing is important before questionnaire survey? 5

Pilot testing also called pre-testing means small scale trial run of a particular component; here we are referring to pilot testing of the questionnaire. Conventional wisdom suggests that pre-testing not only is an established practice for discovering errors but also is useful for extra training the research team. Ironically, professionals who have participated in scores of studies are more likely to pretest an instrument than is a beginning researcher hurrying to complete a project. Revising questions five or more times is not unusual. Yet inexperienced researchers often underestimate the need to follow the design-test-revise process.

It is important to pilot test the instrument to ensure that the questions are understood by the respondents and there are no problems with the wording or measurement. Pilot testing involves the use of a small number of respondents to test the appropriateness of the questions and their comprehension. Usually, the draft questionnaire is tried out on a group that is selected on a convenience and that is similar in makeup to the one that ultimately will be sampled. Making a mistake with 25 or so subjects can avert the disaster of administering an invalid questionnaire to several hundred individuals. Hence the main purpose of pilot testing is to identify potential problems with the methods, logistics, and the questionnaire.

Administering a questionnaire exactly as planned in the actual study often is not possible. For example, mailing out a questionnaire might require several weeks. Pre-testing a questionnaire in this manner might provide important information on response rate, but it may not point out why questions were skipped or why respondents found certain questions ambiguous or confusing. The ability of personal interviewer to record requests for additional explanation and to register comments indicating respondent‟s difficulty with question sequence or other factors is the primary reason why interviewers are often used for pretest work.

5 duties of field researcher.5

A field researcher does the following:

Observes ordinary events and everyday activities as they happen in natural settings, in addition to unusual occurrences. Becomes directly involved with people being studied and personally experiences the process of daily life in the field setting. Acquires an insider‟s point of view while maintaining the analytic perspective or distance of an outsider. Uses a variety of techniques and social skills in a flexible manner as the situation demands. Produces data in the form of extensive, written notes, as well as diagrams, maps, pictures to provide very detailed descriptions. Sees events holistically (as a whole, not in pieces) and individually in their social context. Understands and develops empathy for members in a field setting, and does not just record „cold‟ objective facts. Notices both explicit (recognized, conscious, spoken) and tacit (less recognized, implicit, unspoken) aspects of culture. Observes ongoing social processes without upsetting, or imposing an outside point of view. Copes with high levels of personal stress, uncertainty, ethical dilemmas, and ambiguity.

Steps in Field Research

Naturalism and direct involvement mean that field research is more flexible or less structured than quantitative research. This makes it essential for a researcher to be well organized and prepared for the field. It also means that the steps of project are not entirely predetermined but serve as an approximate guide or road map. Here is just the listing of these steps:

1. Prepare yourself, read the literature and defocus.
2. Select a site and gain access.
3. Enter the field and establish social relations with members.
4. Adopt a social role, learn the ropes, and get along with members.
5. Watch, listen, and collect quality data.
6. Begin to analyze data, generate and evaluate working hypothesis.
7. Focus on specific aspects of the setting and use theoretical sampling.
8. Conduct field interviews with member informants.
9. Disengage and physically leave the setting.
10. Complete the analysis and write the report.

Convenience sampling with e.g

Convenience sampling (also called haphazard or accidental sampling) refers to sampling by obtaining units or people who are most conveniently available. For example, it may be convenient and economical to sample employees in companies in a nearby area, sample from a pool of friends and neighbors. The person-on-the street interview conducted by TV programs is another example. TV interviewers go on the street with camera and microphone to talk to few people who are convenient to interview. The people walking past a TV studio in the middle of the day do not represent everyone (homemakers, people in the rural areas). Likewise, TV interviewers select people who look “normal” to them and avoid people who are unattractive, poor, very old, or inarticulate.

Another example of haphazard sample is that of a newspaper that asks the readers to clip a questionnaire from the paper and mail it in. Not everyone reads the newspaper, has an interest in the topic, or will take the time to cut out the questionnaire, and mail it. Some will, and the number who does so may seem large, but the sample cannot be used to generalize accurately to the population.

Convenience samples are least reliable but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct. Convenience sampling is most often used during the exploratory phase of a research project and is perhaps the best way of getting some basic information quickly and efficiently. Often such sample is taken to test ideas or even to gain ideas about a subject of interest.

Data collection method

1. Data collection methods: Did the data come from primary sources or secondary sources? How the primary data were collected – survey, experiment, observation? It is possible that multiple techniques may have been used – all these have to be explained.

Parts of table

1. Give each table a number.
2. Give each table a title, which names variables and provides background information
3. Label the row and columns variables and give name to each of the variable categories.
4. Include the totals of the columns and rows. These are called marginal. They equal the univariate frequency distribution for the variable.
5. Each number or place that corresponds to the intersection of a category for each variable is a cell of a table.
6. The numbers with the labeled variable categories and the totals are called the body of the table.
7. If there is missing information, report the number of missing cases near the table to account for all original cases.

Researchers convert raw count tables into percentages to see bivariate relationship. There are three ways to percentage a table: by row, by column, and for the total. The first two are often used and show relationship.

Is it best to percentage by row or column? Either could be appropriate. A researcher‟s hypothesis may imply looking at row percentages or the column percentages. Here, the hypothesis is that age affects attitude, so column percentages are most helpful. Whenever one factor in a cross-tabulation can be considered the cause of the other, percentage will be most illuminating if they are computed in the direction of the causal factor.

Which dilemma a person feel with deviant

Involvement with deviants: Researchers who conduct research on deviants who engage in illegal behavior face additional dilemmas. They know of and are sometimes involved in illegal activity. They might be getting „guilty knowledge.‟ Such knowledge is of interest not only to law enforcement officials but also to other deviants. The researcher faces a dilemma of building trust and rapport with the deviants, yet not becoming so involved as to violate his or her basic personal moral standards. Usually, the researcher makes an explicit arrangement with the deviant members.