STA630 Final Term Short Notes Lectures 19-37 by Tanveer

Split-Half reliability: Split half reliability reflects the correlations between two halves of an instrument. The estimates could vary depending on how the items in the measure are split into two halves. SENSITIVITY: The sensitivity of a scale is an important measurement concept, particularly when changes in attitudes or other hypothetical constructs are under investigation. Sensitivity refers to an instrument’s ability to accurately measure variability in stimuli or responses. PRACTICALITY:. Practicality has been defined as economy, convenience, and interpretability.

Lesson 19:

RESEARCH DESIGN

RESEARCH DESIGN: A research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the data. It is a strategy or blueprint that plans the action for carrying through the research project data. Broadly it is composed of different elements like

1. Purpose of the Study 6. Sampling Design:
2. Unit of Analysis: 7. Observation Tools:
3. Time Dimension: 8. Field Data Collection:
4. Choice of Research Design 9. Data Processing and Data Analysis
5. Purpose of the Study: From the perspective of purpose of the study, a research can be exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory. Here our focus is on whether our study is going to be a descriptive or explanatory. The essential difference between descriptive and explanatory studies lies in their objectives. If the research is concerned with

finding out who, what, where, when, or how much, then the study is descriptive. In an explanatory study, we try to explain relationships among variables.

2. Unit of Analysis: The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analysis stage. If, for instance, the problem statement focuses on how to raise the motivational levels of employees in general, then we are interested in individual employees in the organization and would have to find out what we can do to raise their motivation. Here the unit of analysis is the individual. We will be looking at the data gathered from each individual and treating each employee’s response as an individual data source.

If the problem statement is related to group effectiveness, the unit of analysis would be at group level. In other words, even though we may gather relevant data from all individuals comprising. Units of analysis in a study are typically also the units of observation. Thus, to study voting intentions, we would interview (observe) individual voters. Sometimes, however, we “observe” our units of analysis indirectly.

3. Time Dimension: Do we make the observations more or less at one time or over a long period, former called as

cross sectional studies and the latter as longitudinal studies. Cross-Sectional Studies are carried out once and represent a snapshot of one point in time. Data are collected just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or months, in order to answer the research question. Longitudinal Studies are repeated over an extended period. The advantage of longitudinal studies is that it can track changes over time. Such studies, as when data on the dependent variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the research question, are called longitudinal. Longitudinal studies can be panel studies and cohort studies.

4. Researcher Control of Variables: In terms of researcher’s ability to manipulate variables, we can differentiate

between experimental and ex post facto design. Co relational studies done in organizations are called field studies. Studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationship using the same natural environment are called field experiments. Here the researcher does not interfere with the natural occurrence of events in as much as independent variable is manipulated. Experiments done to establish cause and effect relationship beyond the possibility of the least doubt require the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneous factor are strictly controlled. Similar subjects are chosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli. These studies are referred to as lab experiments. With an ex post facto design, investigators have no control over the variables in the sense of being able to manipulate them. They can only report what has happened or what is happening.

3. Choice of Research Design: Mode of Observation: There could be number of ways to collect the data depending

upon whether the study is quantitative or qualitative, descriptive or explanatory, cross-sectional or longitudinal, and contrived or non-contrived, the researcher decides about the mode of observation. The modes could be like: survey, experiment, communication analysis (content analysis) field observation, case study, focus group discussion.

6. Sampling Design: The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in population, we may draw conclusions about the entire population. A population element is the subject on which the measurement is being taken. It is the unit of analysis. Sampling has its own advantages and disadvantages. Depending upon the nature of the study the researchers decides about following appropriate type of sampling design.
7. Observation Tools: Observation tool mostly used by social researchers are: questionnaire, interview schedule, Interview guide, and check list. In the research design, the researcher will specify the tools of data collection along the logic justifying the appropriateness of the selected tool.

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8. Field Data Collection: Depending upon the mode of observation, the researcher will outline the procedure for field operations. The researcher will try to look after the questions like: How the data will be collected? Who will be responsible for the collections of data? What training will be imparted to the field functionaries? How will the quality control of data be maintained?
9. Data Processing and Data Analysis: In the research design the researcher is required to tell how the data shall be processed (manually, mechanically), and analysis plans explicated. In case the qualitative data are to be quantifies the procedures should be spelled out. The procedures for the construction of score Indexes, if any, should be explained. The research design should also say something about the analysis plan, the use of statistics, and the inferences to be drawn.

SURVEY RESEARCH: AN OVERVIEW: Surveys require asking people, who are called respondents, for information, using either verbal or written questions. Questionnaires or interviews are utilized to collect data on the telephone, face-to-face and through other communication media. Thus, a survey is defined as a method of gathering primary data based on communication with a representative sample of individuals. STEPS IN CONDUCTING A SURVEY: The survey researcher follows a deductive approach. He or she begins with a theoretical or applied research problem and ends with empirical measurement and data analysis. Once a researcher decides that survey is an appropriate method, basic steps in a research project can broadly be divided into six sub-steps. 1. Develop the hypothesis: 5. Enter data into computers 2. Plan how to record data: 6. Describe methods and findings in research 3. Decide on target population: report: 4. Locate respondents

1. Develop the hypothesis; decide on type of survey (mail, interview, telephone); write survey questions (decide on response categories, design lay out). The researcher develops an instrument — a survey questionnaire or interview schedule — that he or she uses to measure variables. Respondents read the questions themselves and mark answers on a questionnaire. An interview schedule is a set of questions read to the respondent by an interviewer, who also records the responses. To simplify the discussion, we will use only the term questionnaire.
2. Plan how to record data; pilot test survey instrument. When preparing the questionnaire, the researcher thinks ahead to how he or she will record and organize data for analysis. The questionnaire is pilot tested on a small set of respondents similar to those in the final survey.
3. Decide on target population; get sampling frame; decide on sample size; select the sample.
4. Locate respondents; conduct interviews; carefully record data. The researcher locates sampled respondents in person, by telephone, or by mail. Respondents are given information and instructions on completing the questionnaire

or interview.

5. Enter data into computers; recheck all data; perform statistical analysis on data.
6. Describe methods and findings in research report; present findings to others for critique and evaluation. Lesson 20: SURVEY RESEARCH

SURVEY RESEARCH: Research Design can be classified by the approach used to gather primary data. There are

really two alternatives. We can observe conditions, behavior, events, people, or processes Or we can communicate with people about various topics, including participants’ attitudes, motivations, intentions, and expectations. The communication approach involves surveying people and recording their responses for analysis. The great strength of the survey as a primary data collecting approach is its versatility. What media do we use for communicating with people? Human Interactive Media and Electronic Interactive Media When two people engage in conversation, human interaction takes place. Human interactive media are personal forms of communication. One human being directs a message to and interacts with another individual (or a small group). When they think of interviewing, most people envision this type of face-toface dialogue or a conversation on telephone. Electronic interactive media allows researchers to reach a large audience, to personalize individual messages and to interact with members of the audience using digital technology. To a large extent electronic interactive media users are controlled by the users themselves. In the context of surveys, respondents are not passive audience members. They are actively involved in a two-way communication when electronic interactive media are utilized. The Internet, the medium that is radically altering many organizations’ research strategies, provides a prominent example of the new electronic interactive media. Non-Interactive Media: The traditional questionnaire received by mail and completed by the respondent does not allow a dialogue or exchange of information for immediate feedback. Self-administered questionnaires printed on paper are also non-interactive.

CHOOSING

A COMMUNICATION MEDIA:

Once the researcher has determined that surveying is the appropriate data collection approach, various means may be used to secure information from individual. A research can conduct a survey by personal interview, telephone, mail, computer or a combination of these media. PERSONAL INTERVIEWING: A personal interview (i.e. face to face communication) is a two way conversation initiated by an interviewer to obtain information from a respondent. Personal interviews may take place in a factory, in a homeowner’s doorway, in an executive’s office, in a shopping mall, or in other settings. ADVANTAGES OF PERSONAL INTERVIEWING:

1. The Opportunity for Feedback: Personal interviews allow for feedback. The interviewer may also provide feedback in clarifying any questions an employee or any other respondent has about the instructions or questions.
2. Probing (tid Complex Questions: An important characteristic of personal interview is the opportunity to follow up, by probing. If a respondent’s answer is brief or unclear, the researcher may ask for a clearer or more

comprehensive explanation.

3. Length of Interview: If the research objective requires an extremely lengthy questionnaire, personal interviews may be the only alternative. Generally, telephone interviews last fewer than 10 minutes, whereas a personal interview can be much longer, perhaps more than an hour. A rule of thumb for mail questionnaire is that it should not be more than six pages.
4. High Completion Rate: The social interaction between a well-trained interviewer and a respondent in personal interview increases the likelihood that the respondent will answer all items on the questionnaire.
5. Props and Visual Aids: Interviewing respondents face to face allows an investigator to show them a new product sample, a sketch of proposed office, or some other visual aid. The respondents can even taste samples of different products and can give their evaluations. Such an evaluation cannot be done in telephone interview or mail survey.
6. High Participation Rate: While some people are reluctant to participate in a survey, the presence of an interviewer generally increases the percentages of people willing to complete the interview.
7. Observation of the Non-Verbal Behavior: In a personal interview, the interviewer can catch the facial

expressions, body movements, and depending upon the goals of the study, the environment of the respondent. Such observations may supplement the verbal information.

8. Non-Literates can participate in Study: Since the respondent has neither to read nor to write, therefore, an illiterate or a functionally illiterate person can also take part in the survey study.
9. Interviewer can Prescreen Respondent: In order to ensure that the respondent fits the sampling criteria, the interviewer can do some prescreening of the respondent. In personal interview the interviewer makes it sure that only the relevant respondent provides the information.
10. CAPI — Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing: With the use of such modern technology the responses of the respondents can be entered into a portable microcomputer to reduce error and cost.

DISADVANTAGES OF PERSONAL INTERVIEWING:

1. High Cost: Personal interviews are generally more expensive than mail, internet, and telephone surveys. People usually estimate the cost of personal interviews is usually 15 times higher than the mail survey
2. Scarcity (4S of Highly Trained Interviewers: In case of a big study (especially a sponsored study) there shall be a need of highly trained interviewers, who are not easily available. Using unqualified and untrained interviewers are likely to have a negative effect on the quality of the data and the subsequent generalizations.
3. Lack of Anonymity #U_— «U« of Respondent: Because the respondent in a personal interview is not

anonymous therefore he/she may be reluctant to provide confidential information to another person-

4. Callbacks — a Labor Intensive Work: Callbacks or attempts to re-contact individuals selected for the sample are the major means to reducing non-response error. It is a labor intensive work and definitely increases the cost.
5. Interviewer Influence: There is some evidence that the demographic characteristics of the interviewer influence respondents’ answers. Respondent’s sex, age, and physical appearance can have an effect on the responses of the respondent.
6. Interviewer Bias Us Jit : Interviewers personal likings and dis-likings, the environment and cultural biases can affect the understanding of the responses, its recording, and its interpretation.
7. No Opportunity to Consult: The interview may take place anywhere — place of work, in the shopping mall, at home — the respondent may be unable to consult record, incase he/she has to do so for any specific question.
8. Less Standardized Wording: Despite the fact that the questions have been printed and have a specified order, these questions are read by the interviewer. The interviewers intentionally or unintentionally may not be able to use the standardized wording which may bias the data. Similarly the order of the questions may be altered.
9. Limitations in Respondents’ Availability and Accessibility: Some executive officers or VIPs may not be available or accessible to interviewers. Some of them may not be willing to talk to strangers for security reasons.