ENG513 Midterm Short Notes 2nd Batch by Mudassar Ahmad

These are notes for those students who are unable to go through video lectures & handouts. These are not prepared for grand quiz but you can comprehend topics of grand quiz or basic concepts.

Lecture: 01 · Broad conceptual points of language · 1) Language as a system

A study of language is basically a study of its systems and subsystems. By treating language as a system, we are merely acknowledging that each unit of language, from a single sound to a complex word to a large text— spoken or written—has a character of its own, and each is dependent upon its co-occurring units.

2) Language as discourse

Discourse - an instance of spoken or written language that has describable internal relationships of form and meaning (e.g., words, structures, cohesion) that relate coherently to an external communicative function or purpose. The focus here is a connected and contextualized unit of language use.

3) Language as ideology

It is profitable to think of language ideologies as a cluster of concepts consisting of converging dimensions: First, “language ideologies represent the perception of language and discourse that is constructed in the interests of a specific social or cultural group” Second, “language ideologies are profitably conceived as multiple because of the multiplicity of meaningful social divisions Third, “members may display varying degrees of awareness of local language ideologies”

The poverty of stimulus by Chomsky

The language input exposed to the child is both quantitatively and qualitatively poor but still the child is able to produce, in a short period of time, language output that is immensely rich.

Mentalism - states that much of human behavior is biologically determined, and language behavior is no exception.

Universal Grammar - a set of abstract concepts governing the grammatical structure of all languages that are genetically encoded in the human brain. It comprises:

Principles (languages usually have nouns, pronouns, and verbs) Parameters (in some languages, verbs can be placed at the end of the sentence, or in some languages)

. Three Meta/Macro functions of language

1. Ideational function - represents the individual’s meaning potential
2. The interpersonal function - deals with the individual’s personal relationships with people.
3. Textual function - refers to the linguistic realizations of the ideational and interpersonal functions enabling the individual to construct coherent texts, spoken or written.

Language communication by Halliday - is the product or the result of the process of interplay between the ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions of language.

Factors governing successful communication by Hymes SPEAKING

• Setting refers to the place and time in which the communicative event takes place.
• Participants refer to speakers and hearers and their role/relationships.
• Ends refer to the stated or unstated objectives the participants wish to accomplish.
• Act sequence refers to the form, content, and sequence of utterances.
• Key refers to the manner and tone (serious, sarcastic, etc.) of the utterances.
• Instrumentalities refer to the channel (oral or written) and the code (formal or informal).
• Norms refers to conventions of interaction and interpretation based on shared knowledge.
• Genre refers to categories of communication such as lecture, report, essay, poem, and so forth.

Chomsky and Hymes accept and use the notion of competence

Chomsky

Hymes

Chomsky’s notion is limited to the tacit knowledge His notion goes beyond to include actual knowledge Chomsky’s notion is biologically based More socially based Purely individual Mainly social Concerns form Concerns function Focuses the state Focuses processes

Components of speech act theory by Austin

1. Locution - refers to a propositional statement - asking or answering a question
2. Illocution - the second to its intended meaning
3. Perlocution - the third to its expected response

Foucault’s concept of discourse - Discourse is not just the supra-sentential aspect of language; rather, language itself is one aspect of discourse.

Three-dimensional definition of discourse by Foucault

Treating it:

1. Sometimes as the general domain of all statements - relates to all actual utterances or texts
2. Sometimes as an individualized group of statements - relates to specific formations or fields
3. Sometimes as a regulated practice that accounts for a number of statements - relates to sociopolitical structures

Text

A text means what it means. In other words, texts are political because all discursive formations are political.

Analyzing text/discourse - means analyzing discursive formations, which are essentially political in character and ideological in content.

Orientalism

It forms an interrelated web of ideas, images, and texts from the scholarly to the popular, produced by artists, writers, travelers, politicians and administrators, that shape and structure Western representations of colonized people.

The study of language addresses the teaching of language, HOW?

When a teacher believes in language as a certain kind of entity, it affects his or her way of thinking about language which in turn affects his or her way of thinking about how to teach a language.

Lecture: 02 · Language Teaching Methods in Europe in Early Modern Times · GTM

Translations Emphasis was on learning grammar rules and vocabulary by rote Practice in writing sample sentences The sentences that were translated or written by the students were examples of grammatical points and usually had little relationship to the real world

Direct Method features

Classroom instruction was conducted in the target language There was an inductive approach to grammar Only everyday vocabulary was taught Concrete vocabulary was taught through pictures and objects

Sequence of teaching methods

➢ GTM – Early Modern times It was believed that language teaching should be based on scientific knowledge about language; that it should begin with speaking and expand to other skills. ➢ Direct Method – 18th – 19th century It got popularity at the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth, but it was difficult to use, mainly because of the constraints of budget, time, and classroom size which caused the emergence of ALM. ➢ Audio-lingual method - 1950s ➢ Transformational Generative Grammar – mid-1960s Learners do not acquire an endless list of rules but limited set of transformations which can be used over and over again. ➢ Input Hypothesis by Stephen Krashen Language is acquired by using comprehensible input (the language that one hears in the environment) which is slightly beyond the learner's present proficiency.

Audio-lingual method features

• No grammatical explanation
• Learning vocabulary in context
• Use of tapes and visual aids
• Focus on pronunciation
• Immediate reinforcement of correct responses

Suggestopedia by Lozanov 1979

It promised great results if one would use their brain power and inner capacities. He came up with a method for learning that used relaxation as a means of retaining new knowledge and material.

It focuses on presenting vocabulary, readings, role-plays and drama with classical music in the background and students sitting in comfortable seats. In this way, students became "suggestible

The Silent Way

The Silent Way is rested on cognitive rather than affective arguments. It is in learners' best interests to develop independence and autonomy and cooperate with each other in solving language problems. The teacher is supposed to be silent.

Strategies-based Instruction - emphasized the importance of style awareness and strategy development in ensuring mastery of a foreign language.

Lecture: 03

Three levels of conceptualization by Edward Anthony

1. Approach - The level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are specified.