ENG524 Final Term Easy Notes 2025 by VSC

COMPILE BY VSC · L21 · Topic 90: Introduction to the CDS & Social Theory – 1

CDS (Critical Discourse Studies) is liye important hai kyun ke yeh language use ko uske context aur social structures ke sath relate karta hai. CDS sirf language mein interest nahi rakhta, balkay yeh dekhta hai ke kis tarah language ke zariye power relations effect hote hain.

Fairclough ke mutabiq, CDS karne ka matlab hai ke hum language ke sath sath social duniya ko bhi samjhein. Social theories ek framework deti hain taake hum samajh saken ke social world kaam kaise karta hai – is mein action, order aur change ka taluq hota hai.

CDS mein kai mashhoor scholars jaise ke Althusser, Bourdieu, Butler, Foucault, Giddens, Gramsci, Habermas aur Laclau ki theories ka istemal hota hai. Har strand in theories ko apne tareeqe se use karta hai.

Do important questions jo CDS mein uthaye jate hain:

Q1. Action aur structure ka taluq kya hai? Kya structure hamesha individuals ko control karta hai ya log azad hote hain?

Q2. Discursive aur extra-discursive ka kya relation hai? Aur concepts jaise critique, emancipation, ideology, power, hegemony kis tarah samjhe jate hain?

CDS ke mukhtalif strands, jaise ke Fairclough, van Dijk, aur Wodak, do major social theories se influenced hain:

Marxism / Neo-Marxism

Post-Structuralism (Foucault waghera)

Van Dijk zyada social psychology ki taraf jhukao rakhta hai jabke Fairclough aur Wodak sociology aur theory pe focus kartay hain.

Topic 91: Introduction to the CDS & Social Theory – 2

1970s mein jab Critical Linguistics (CL) shuru hua, to iska focus tha ke kis tarah language reality aur discrimination ko represent karta hai. Us waqt social structures ko deterministic samjha jata tha, yaani log structures ke zariye control hote hain.

CL ke scholars jaise Fowler aur Kress (1979) ne kaha ke kuch language use “dehumanizing” hai, aur is language ko samajhna aur expose karna zaroori hai. Unho ne ideology ko ek systematic body of ideas kaha jo kisi khas nazariye se organize hoti hai aur language ke choices mein zahir hoti hai.

Althusser ka concept important hai – usne ideology ko ek material cheez kaha. Uske mutabiq, ideology ek imaginary relation hai logon aur unki asal zindagi ke darmiyan. Althusser ka mashhoor concept hai interpellation, jisme individuals ko society “subjects” bana deti hai. Recent developments:

Baker (2014) ne Foucault ka discourse concept adopt kiya. Butler ke gender concepts use hue. O’Halloran (2012) ne Deleuze aur Guattari introduce kiye. Macgilchrist (2016) ne epistemology aur social order pe kaam kiya. Queer Theory ka bhi interest bada (Thurlow, Milani). Wodak (2009) ne Goffman ka use kiya European Parliament ke interactions ko analyze karne ke liye.

Topic 92: Marx & (Neo) Marxist Influences

1960s aur 70s ke social turmoil ne CDA/CDS ke scholars ko Marxism ki taraf attract kiya. Yeh scholars capitalism ko criticize karte hain, lekin yeh reductionist approach nahi rakhte – yeh language aur culture ki importance ko bhi samajhte hain.

Fairclough aur Graham (2002) ne kaha:

1. Language capitalism mein aur zyada central ho gaya hai.
2. Marx language aur social life ke darmiyan connection ko samajhte thay.

Unho ne bataya ke Marx ke writings mein ideology aur civil society ke darmiyan discursive aur material dimensions ka relation hota hai.

Doosre theories:

Anthony Giddens ka Theory of Structuration: Log sirf passive nahi hote, balkay society ko reproduce karte hain aur apne actions ko monitor karte hain. Gramsci ka concept of Hegemony: Jab ruling class logon ki razamandi se dominate karti hai (e.g. church, schools), na ke sirf force se. Frankfurt School ka critical theory: Culture aur capitalism ka analysis. Habermas ka concept of validity claims (truth, rightness, truthfulness).

Topic 93: Post-Structuralist Influences

Post-structuralism mein Foucault sabse important figure hai. Uske mutabiq:

Discourse power aur knowledge ko connect karta hai. Discourse subjects, relationships, aur knowledge systems ko shape karta hai. Discourses interdependent hote hain (intertextuality). Discourse power ka zariya bhi hai, aur social change ka bhi. Order of Discourse ka matlab hai ke har social field mein specific genre, discourse aur styles ka combination hota hai.

Van Leeuwen (2008) ne Foucault ke discourse concepts ko legitimation ke sath milaya.

Laclau aur Mouffe ke mutabiq:

Discourse elements ka relation define karta hai. Elements ko meaning extra-discursive sources se nahi milta. Articulation ka concept: Random elements ko meaningful complex mein badalna. Nodal Points: Jis concept ke gird meaning center hota hai. Jaise environmentalism mein “protection” ek nodal point ho sakta hai. Chouliaraki aur Fairclough ne Laclau-Mouffe ke theory ko Marxism aur Gramsci ke concepts ke sath mila kar dekha.

Post-structuralism se feminist theories bhi CDS mein aayi hain.

Topic 94: Conclusion

CDS ko agar strong framework banana hai to social theories ke sath uska link zaroori hai. CDS mein mukhtalif theorists aur strands alag alag theories ka use karte hain, lekin ek flexible toolkit banana possible hai.

Lekin, agar theories contradict karen to confusion ho sakta hai. Problem-oriented research mein theoretical concepts ka choice research object par depend karta hai.

Lekin problem yeh hai ke hum problems sirf tab dekhte hain jab hum kisi theoretical universe mein khare hote hain.

Marxist-inspired CDS scholars hidden meanings aur power relations ko samajhne ki koshish karte hain.

Post-structuralists openness aur difference ko important samajhte hain.

Har CDS strand ko yeh clarify karna hoga ke wo “social” ko kaise samajhta hai, kyunke CDS ka future isi clarification pe depend karega.

L22

Topic 95: What is Political Language?

Western political soch ke mutabiq language aur politics ka gehra taluq hai. Aristotle ne jab insan ko “political animal” (politikon zoon) kaha, to usi waqt ye bhi kaha ke insan mein speech ki khas salahiyat hai.

‘Speech’ vs ‘Voice’:

Aristotle kehta hai ke “voice” to har janwar mein hoti hai – jisme woh dard ya khushi jata sakta hai. Magar “speech” sirf insano mein hoti hai, jiska kaam hota hai batana ke kya sahi hai aur kya ghalat, kya faida mand hai aur kya nuqsan daih. Sirf insan hi “just” aur “unjust” ka perception rakhta hai.

Political language ka basic point ye hai ke shared values (milke maane gaye usool) political communities ko define karte hain. Jab log ek jaise nazariye rakhte hain, to woh milkar faislay karte hain.

Aaj kal linguistics ke mutabiq:

Speech ka ability genetic hota hai lekin usay activate karna social interaction se hota hai. Political behavior bhi genetics se linked ho sakta hai. Language ka culture se nikalna, aur uska political needs ko serve karna important hai.

👉 Conclusion: Politics language ke baghair mumkin nahi, kyunke siyasat ka kaam zyada tar zabaan ke zariye hota hai.