PSY406 Final Term Handouts by Zainee Academy

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Lesson 19 COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNINGI

One of the important factors that affect learning, both inside and outside of the classroom, is memory. There are a number of theories of memory, but the most common are the information processing explanations.

Early information processing views of memory used the computer as a model. Like the computer, it is considered to perform following functions

The human mind takes in information. It performs operation on it to change its form and content. It then stores the information that is has taken in. It then retrieves this information that it has taken in, when retrieval is required. And finally. it generates a response to the taken in information.

In other words, processing involves gathering information, and organizing it in relation to what you already know, or encoding; holding information or storage; and getting at the information when needed, or retrieval. The whole system is guided by control processes that determine how and when information will flow through the system.

The AtkinsonShiffrin model of information processing derived from the ideas of several theorists. In order to understand this model, let’s examine each element.

Sensory Memory

Stimuli from the environment (sight, sound, smell) constantly bombard our body’s mechanisms for seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling and feeling. Sensory memory is the initial processing that transforms these incoming stimuli into information so we can make sense of them.

MCQ Human beings attach meaning to stimuli that they receive and this process of attaching meaning to sensations is called perception. The perception then forms larger wholes and becomes Gestalts or patterns of memory. There are two kinds of explanations in information processing theory for how we recognize patterns and give meaning to sensory events. The first is called feature analysis or bottom-up processing that is, noticing parts of sensation and then making a whole of it. It may also take the form of top-down processing, when we give meaning to sensations in view of our already existing knowledge; so, what we know affects our perceptions.

Attention

By paying attention to selected stimuli and ignoring others, we limit the possibilities that we will process. What we pay attention to is guided to a certain extent by what we already know and what we need to know, so attention is involved in and influenced by all three memory processes. Lindsay and Norman proposed that the sensory register held information about the stimuli very briefly after the actual stimuli had left.

Let us elaborate on this view; we have different sense organs ear, nose, eyes, tongues and our skin. These organs receive sensations; those sensations may be compared to very mild electrical currents passing from the sense organ to the brain. After having received the sensations the brain “interprets” it gives meaning and that is how sensation becomes perception. So by attaching “meaning” to the sensations, sensation becomes perception. A useful concept in this regard therefore is that of attention and it focus on a stimulus.

Lesson 20 COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING II

Knowledge and learning are closely related, it is the outcome, the result, the dependent variable of learning. The cognitive approach suggests that one of the most important elements in the learning process is what the individual brings to new learning situations. What we already know “is a scaffold that supports the construction of all future learning”. Knowledge determines to a great extent what we will pay attention to, perceive, learn, remember and forget.

General and Specific Knowledge

Knowledge in the cognitive perspective includes both subject specific understandings (math, history, soccer etc.) and general cognitive abilities such as planning, solving problems and comprehending language. So, knowledge is usually divided into two sub classes in the present context.

MCQ Domainspecific knowledge is that information which is acquired, stored and used in particular situation. For example, knowledge about how motor cars engine works.

MCQ Then the sub class/category of knowledge is what is called general knowledge, information acquired, stored and used in different kinds of tasks and situations. For example, how to read or write or use a word processor is useful in and out of school.

Another way of categorizing knowledge is as declarative, procedural and conditional.

The first is what is called declarative knowledge or memory; that contains verbal information facts, figures etc. It is the knowledge that can be declared such as mathematical symbols, weights, measures and so on. The range of declarative knowledge is tremendous. You can know very specific facts (the atomic weight of gold is 196.967) or generalities (leaves of some trees change color in autumn), or personal preferences (I don’t’ like rice) or rules (to divide fractions). MCQ Declarative knowledge contains verbal information facts, figures, symbols etc.

The second is called procedural knowledge/memory, that contains certain procedures, how can you open a lock of your house, how to drive a car etc. Procedural knowledge is knowledge in action. It must be demonstrated. Students demonstrate procedural knowledge when they translate a passage in Urdu or correctly categorize a geometric shape or craft a coherent paragraph.

The third is conditional knowledge that is knowing when and why to apply and use declarative and procedural knowledge. Given many kinds of math problems, it takes conditional knowledge to know when to apply one procedure and when to apply another to solve each problem. It takes conditional knowledge to know when to read every word in a text and when to skim.

MCQ when and why to apply and use declarative and procedural knowledge. It is called Conditional knowledge.

Some psychologists also relate another kind of memory/Knowledge is called episodic knowledge/memory where in you remember and related some episodes of your past life; for example how did you win that cricket match from your rival team when you were in class eight etc.

Psychologists put forward the new concept of short-term memory

This was the earlier name of information processing system that we have actually talked about. The term shortterm memory is often used to describe that segment of overall memory storage, where information, material or contents are held for only a short time.

The storage time of short-term memory is usually between 15 and 20 seconds. The material gained is kept in this store have for only 15 to 20 seconds and then it fades away and forgotten. Research showed that a part from holding material for a short time period, the short-term memory can hold only about five to nine separate items or independent pieces of information. So short term memory does not contain pieces of information.

Then there is the long-term working memory, which is like a store house of storages and person retrieve information from it whenever he requires it. The progress and development of knowledge in a person adds to the structures and categories in long term memory. These structures can be compared to Cobwebs, they are interconnected. So long term memory provides tools that improve with gain in the knowledge and expertise of a person.

Cognitive psychologists distinguish between explicit memory and implicit memory with the overall category of long-term memory.

Short Question Differentiate B/W explicit and implicit memory?

MCQ Explicit memory as part of the long-term memory is that part of memory that can be recalled when desired and considered consciously. We are aware of these memories; we know we have remembered them.

MCQ Implicit memory as part of long-term memory is the memory that we are not conscious of recalling but affects our behavior or thoughts without our awareness. For example a person being a male or a female is not consciously recalled but it influences the way he or she dresses etc.