ENG512 Final Term Solved File 3

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ENG512

Managementlanguagethreeothername. Languagemanagement–alsoknownas

•  languageplanning
•  languageintervention
•  languageengineering
•  languagetreatment
•  referringtodirecteffortstomanipulatethelanguagesituation

Factorswhenonelanguageisimposedbyastate.

Powerfulgroupsimposetheirlanguageonthelesspowerful. Insomecountries, childrenareschooledinalanguagespokenonlybyapowerfulminoritywithinthe country,andnotbythemajorityofspeakers. Thiseducationalpracticeprivilegesthose whospoketheimposedlanguageathome,severelycurtailingeducationalopportunities forthosewhowereschooledinalanguagetheydidnotunderstand. Thisguarantees thatthepowerstaysinthehandsoftheIndigenouselite

Differencemacroandmicroalternation Duverger(2005)makesausefuldistinctionbetweenmicro-alternationandmacroalternationinbilingualeducation. Macroalternationreferstoacertainnumberof courses,oroflessonswhichformadidacticunity,taughtprimarilyinoneortheother languageandwheretheuseofagivenlanguageacrossthecurriculumisclearly identifiableandhighlyvisible. Micro-alternationoccurswhenacourse,whichis predominantlyhandledinonelanguage,makesuseofelementsoftheotherlanguage. AsDuverger(2005)says,“Macro-alternationisprogrammed,institutionalized, demanding;micro-alternationaddssuppleness,flexibility,andefficiency. The combinationofthetwoissubtle.” Twoteacherstwoclassroomwithexample Thisisthestrictestofthisteacher-determinedseparation. Itcombinesteacherdeterminedwithtimedeterminedseparation. Hereoneteacherteachesinonelanguage atsometimeofday,whileatthesametimeanotherteacherteachesintheother language. Atanalternatetime,thetwoteachersswitchchildren. Forexample,ina bilingualChinese–Italianschool,teacherAteachesgroupAinChinesewhichconsists oftwenty-fivechildren. Atthesametime,teacherBteachesanothertwenty-fivechildren in Italian,groupB.Atsomedeterminedtime(afternoon,thenextday,thenextweek) teacherAteachesgroupBinChinese,whereasteacherBteachesgroupAinItalian. Thisarrangementisknownasside-by-sideandrequires,attheprimarylevel,two teacherswhoarebilingualbutwhoineffectfunctionasamonolingualteacher. Languageborrowingwithexample whenbilingualscommunicatewitheachothertheycanmakesimultaneoususeofthe resourcesofeachoftheirlanguages,forexamplebyborrowingwordsfromone languagewhileusingtheother(loanwords)orbydevelopingmixedorswitchedcodes whicharegovernedbytheirownspecificrules. Thereisanattempttocorrelatethe degreeofbalanceofbilingualswithahighlevelofcompetenceinrule-governedcodeswitching Whycodeswitchingimposeonteachersineducationprogram Randomcode-switchingisoftenthewayinwhichbilingualteachersuselanguagesin transitionalbilingualeducationclassrooms. Thatis,theyusetwolanguagestoteachthe samecontentconcurrentlywithfrequentshiftingbackandforthbetweenthetwo languageswithinalesson,andwithlittlethoughtastowhytheyaredoingso. The teacherswitcheslanguagestoimitatethelanguagewhichthechildhasused. Yet,other times,teacherscode-switchtoengageemotionallywiththechildortakedisciplinary actions. Whya2ndlanguageisimportantinhisorherearlyage. Manyhaveproposedthatthereareadvantagestotheearlyintroductionofasecond languageinschool(CenozandGenesee,1998:28).Thisisbasedonthewidespread beliefthatearlierisbetterforbilingualismyet,thereseemtobenoage-related differencesintheprocessoflanguagelearning Long,1990; Scovel,1988),empiricalevidenceinfavorofacriticalperiodforL2 acquisitionhasbeenequivocal,withsomestudiesclaimingevidenceforthecritical periodandothersevidenceagainstit. Whereassomereporttheimpressiveprogressofstudentsstartingatthesecondary level,othersfindthatstudentsstartingatkindergartendobetter. Butthedifferences betweenearlyonsetandlateonsetofbilingualisminschoolarenegligiblebythetime studentsareinsecondaryschool

Whatshouldbetheratiooftimeallocationacrosstwolanguagesinthecurriculum? Developmentalbilingualeducationprogramsalsooftenuseaslidingallocation. The initialinstructionusuallyfollowsa90:10relationshipwiththeminoritizedlanguageused for90percentofthecurriculartimewhileitisstrengthenedAsthepowerofthe languagesequalize,theotherlanguagemaybeallocatedequaltimeinthecurriculum buttherearealsodevelopmentalbilingualeducationprogramswhichare50:50orthat allocatethetwolanguagesindifferentcombinations. Whichconcernsshouldbeencouragedtoaccessmultiplelinguisticandcultural resources? CulturallyappropriatecomputerprogramsintheindigenouslanguagesofPakistanwill supportandstrengthentheselanguages. Theywillbringthemmoreprestigeandmay, perhaps,encouragepeopletofeelthattheytoocanbeusedinmoderndomains. The majorPakistanilanguagesaretoolargetobeendangered. However,theyneedtobe givenmoreprestigetotaketheirrightfulroleinthedomainsofpower. Twoteacherstwoclassroomsadvantagesanddisadvantages Oneadvantageoftheside-by-sideteachingarrangementisthatteachersuseonlyone languageinteaching,andonlyneedtoprepareinonelanguage. Anotheradvantageis thattheteachers’bilingualismandilliteracydonotneedtobefullydeveloped. Thatis,it ispossibletousetwobilingualteacherswhoareonlyreceptivebilinguals,ableto understandthechildrenandtexts,butnotcompletelyliteratetoteachintwolanguages. Thedisadvantageofthisarrangementattheelementarylevelisthatteachersteachtwo groupsofstudents,andthus,havetoteachdoublethenumberofchildren. Forexample, teacherAabovewillteachatotaloffiftychildren,insteadoftwenty-five Powerfuldescriptionoftwolanguagesuse Fu(2003)providesapowerfuldescriptionofhowtwolanguages–ChineseandEnglish– canbeusedtoexpandtheoralandwrittenabilitiesofChineseimmigrantchildrennew totheUnitedStates. ByencouragingstudentstouseChineseinwritingEnglish,notonly dostudentsnewtoEnglishdevelopwritingfaster,butexplicitcross-linguisticanalysis canoccur. ChinesestudentsinthisschoolbecomeawareofthefactthatEnglish,unlike Chinese,hasverbtenses,andthatEnglishverbs,unlikeChinese,changeendingsand theyareexplicitlymadeawareofthefactthatEnglishhassubjectandobjectformsof pronouns,whereasChinesedoesnotbutbesidesallthesecomparisons, Chinese childrenaretaughttoreflectontheirowndevelopmentasChinesereaders,ontherole ofgraphicmemoryinrememberingChinesecharactersandintherelationshipbetween shapeandmeaning. ChinesechildrenreflectontheotherstrategiestheyuseasEnglish readers,phonicsandmeaning-basedapproaches. Howlanguagesaffectpolitics Languageis‘ intimatelyrelatedtothedistributionofsocialpowerandhierarchical structuresinsociety. Languagenotonlyfacilitatesaccesstoknowledgebutalso mediatesparticipationinandengagementwiththesocialworld. Itfilterscontrolover resources,demarcatesthehorizonsofwhatisbothknowableandachievable,and delimitsfreedomofchoiceandeffectiveopportunitiesforwiderparticipationand